GENERAL DESCRIPTION
On Aru, Kai, and Tanimbar, the history of many patrilineal descent groups goes back to a glorious, mythical past in which the first male ancestors still acted in the guise of animals. The mythical founding fathers appear to have assumed the shape of animals on Aru in particular. On other islands, this role could also be played by humans that were associated with animals because of the qualities attributed to them. This was beautifully reflected in material culture. Characteristic statues of founding fathers could generally be found on these eastern islands.
On the island of Aru, for example, totemlike figures of founding fathers were placed on boats before they set out to sea. Most examples of this imagery depict a seabird, dog, rooster, or snake. The three-dimensional figures, called semai or mitmosim (both terms meaning “sacred”), were attached to the prow and stern. Furthermore, a two-dimensional version in which double images mirrored each other was often placed on a stern board; in special cases, human beings were depicted. Remarkably, these traditions continued to be practiced until quite recently. These animal figures received offerings on a regular basis, as Western missionaries did not regard them as ancestors and were therefore not threatened by their presence.
In villages on Tanimbar, and to a lesser extent on Kai, the founding fathers were portrayed in a comparable way. Here, the animal figures were carved on “houses of origin” of descent groups, village stairs and doorways, and stern boards of proas as clan emblems. As on Aru, roosters, dogs, and snakes were favored. Moreover, ancestors sometimes appeared as animals inside the houses of origin. The remote island of Tanimbar-Kai offers well-documented examples. Around 1980, images of founding fathers in the shape of animal figures were documented in the attics of two houses. The statues were fitted with the heads of roosters; the bodies resembled those of a human being and a bird.
Evidence collected on the islands of Kai and Tanimbar revealed, however, that not all animal figures connected to a descent group concerned the genealogical founding fathers. A clan or village could also be represented by an animal with which a mythical bond had been made. Through this bond, the animal joined the group, and its image seems to have replaced or symbolized the first male ancestor. These types of bonds are known to have existed primarily on Tanimbar. In various cases, no kinship relation existed with the animals that made up the clan emblems.
The animals chosen to be depicted in these kinds of sculptures were closely linked to the role of the founding fathers in society. Roosters, as well as dogs and snakes, were associated with virtues such as bravery and aggression, both necessary for the ability to kill and thus build a reputation. To the descendants, therefore, the animal figures referred to a founding father as a man of highly impressive standing: an invincible headhunter and an ultimate source of power.
Adapted from
Nico de Jonge, "Life and Death in Southeast Moluccan Art," in Eyes of the Ancestors: The Arts of Island Southeast Asia at the Dallas Museum of Art, Reimar Schefold, ed. in collaboration with Steven Alpert (Dallas: Dallas Museum of Art; New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2013), 275-281.
NOTES
Full text of the original essay adapted to create this CC was pulled from an old note from JBG notebooks that has since been trashed (1/16/2018):
Characteristic statues of founding fathers can generally be found on the eastern islands. On Aru, Kai, and Tanimbar, the history of many patrilineal descent groups goes back to a glorious, mythical past in which the first male ancestors still act in the guise of animals. This is beautifully reflected in material culture.[2]
On the island of Aru, for example, totemlike figures of founding fathers were placed on boats before they set out to sea. Most examples of this imagery depict a seabird, dog, rooster, or snake. The three-dimensional figures, called semai or mitmosim (both terms meaning “sacred”), were attached to the prow and stern.[3] Furthermore, a two-dimensional version in which double images mirrored each other was often placed on a stern board; in special cases, human beings were depicted. Remarkably, these traditions continued to be practiced until quite recently. These animal figures received offerings on a regular basis, as Western missionaries did not regard them as ancestors and were therefore not threatened by their presence.
In villages on Tanimbar, and to a lesser extent on Kai, the founding fathers were portrayed in a comparable way. Here, the animal figures were carved on “houses of origin” of descent groups, village stairs and doorways, and stern boards of proas as clan emblems.[4] As on Aru, roosters, dogs, and snakes were favored. Moreover, ancestors sometimes appeared as animals inside the houses of origin. The remote island of Tanimbar-Kai offers well-documented examples. Around 1980, images of founding fathers in the shape of animal figures were documented in the attics of two houses. The statues were fitted with the heads of roosters; the bodies resembled those of a human being and a bird.[5]
Evidence collected on the islands of Kai and Tanimbar reveals, however, that not all animal figures connected to a descent group concerned the genealogical founding fathers. A clan or village could also be represented by an animal with which a mythical bond had been made. Through this bond, the animal joined the group, and its image seems to have replaced or symbolized the first male ancestor. These types of bonds are known to have existed primarily on Tanimbar. In various cases, no kinship relation existed with the animals that made up the clan emblems (faniak).[6]
The animals chosen to be depicted in these kinds of sculptures were closely linked to the role of the founding fathers in society. Roosters, as well as dogs and snakes, were associated with virtues such as bravery and aggression, both necessary for the ability to kill and thus build a reputation. To the descendants, therefore, the animal figures referred to a founding father as a man of highly impressive standing: an invincible headhunter and an ultimate source of power.
Illustrative of his “heroic deeds” was the decorative design depicting a hunter and his prey: a rooster or a dog with a fish or turtle in his beak or paws. Sometimes this motif was used to decorate a house or village doorway, but more often it was incorporated in a prow board. The latter could also be decorated with other “prey,” such as shells that represented severed heads. The shell decorations (usually Ovula ovum shells strung together) were widely used within the region. For countless generations, these were the preferred means of advertising one’s standing as a headhunter in the Moluccas.[7]
A special version of the design could be found in some of Tanimbar’s founding houses. Here, lavishly embellished plank statues proclaimed the fame and glory of the noble families concerned. The plank statues (mostly known as tavu, meaning “source” or “trunk,” a good illustration of the botanical symbolism) functioned as a sort of family shrine where the ancestral power available within the group could be called upon.
The tavu decorated with the “hunter and his prey” motif were most common on Selaru, the southernmost island of the Tanimbar archipelago. There, the ancient totemic culture was probably best preserved.[8] Generally, the Selaru tavu had the shape of a standing, very stylized human figure with its arms spread wide. At the top there was often a symmetrical carving of two roosters or two dogs, quite similar to the Aru stern boards. This faniak image was accompanied by carvings (often directly below it) that depicted seized treasures in various forms, such as gold valuables and shells probably symbolizing severed heads.[9] However, in contrast to the prow boards, here often beautifully stylized Nautilus species could be observed.[10]
While the statues of founding mothers in Maluku Tenggara—in accordance with symbolism of the “ship of marriage”—explicitly referred to fertility, the male family founders were—in accordance with the same concept—usually depicted as “great hunters.”
2. The mythical founding fathers appear to have assumed the shape of animals on Aru in particular. On other islands, this role could also be played by humans that were associated with animals because of the qualities attributed to them.
3. See Osseweijer 2001: 86.
4. See, for example, Jacobsen 1896: 185, 221; Drabbe 1940: 106, 111; Barraud 1979: 35–36.
5. See Barraud 1979: 71.
6. See, for example, Drabbe 1940: 388–89.
7. See Rumphius (1678) in Buijze 2001: 105.
8. Drabbe remarks that the island of Selaru has a special position within the Tanimbar archipelago. Here, more than elsewhere, a “totemic cultural complex” would have left its mark (1940: preface).
9. Müller-Wismar collected eleven tavu on Selaru in 1913 and identified the carved animal figures, which he called “totems,” or faniak (1914). Engelhard (1994) discusses his data and provides an overview of golden valuables represented on tavu. Of interest here are chest pendants and “male earrings,” heirloom valuables that always remain in the clan and do not circulate in society, constituting the strength and prestige of the descent group involved (see also the gold chest pendant from Tanimbar, cat. 103, p. 298). Because of its ancient culture, Selaru also appears to be the obvious place to provide the exact meaning of the tavu. We hypothesize that in this case—as with the luli statue—we find a female figure that uses its outstretched arms to depict a boat. Similar to early war or celebration proas, this symbolic boat—at least on Selaru—always has a male clan emblem ( faniak) on it, accompanied by the depiction of status-enhancing treasures (symbols of trophy heads). The resulting image appears to leave little room for doubt; this is a visualization of the grandness of the clan by means of showing it as a boat, laden with hunting trophies. It is a familiar image on Tanimbar (the traditional house would in fact embody the same message), which would particularly be expressed during the renewal of intervillage alliances. Their consummation would be celebrated by female dancers, their arms stretched sideways and covered with valuable heirlooms, upholding the reputation of the descent group (see also Geurtjens 1941: 175).
10. The Nautilus shell was widely used as a substitute headhunting trophy within the region; see, for example, Drabbe 1940: 235, and de Jonge and van Dijk 1995a: 96. In the Babar archipelago as well as on Kisar, the traditional houses were even decorated with them; see, for example, Brommer 1979: pl. 94.
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General Description
On Aru, Kai, and Tanimbar, the history of many patrilineal descent groups goes back to a glorious, mythical past in which the first male ancestors still acted in the guise of animals. The mythical founding fathers appear to have assumed the shape of animals on Aru in particular. On other islands, this role could also be played by humans that were associated with animals because of the qualities attributed to them. This was beautifully reflected in material culture. Characteristic statues of founding fathers could generally be found on these eastern islands.
On the island of Aru, for example, totemlike figures of founding fathers were placed on boats before they set out to sea. Most examples of this imagery depict a seabird, dog, rooster, or snake. The three-dimensional figures, called semai or mitmosim (both terms meaning “sacred”), were attached to the prow and stern. Furthermore, a two-dimensional version in which double images mirrored each other was often placed on a stern board; in special cases, human beings were depicted. Remarkably, these traditions continued to be practiced until quite recently. These animal figures received offerings on a regular basis, as Western missionaries did not regard them as ancestors and were therefore not threatened by their presence.
In villages on Tanimbar, and to a lesser extent on Kai, the founding fathers were portrayed in a comparable way. Here, the animal figures were carved on “houses of origin” of descent groups, village stairs and doorways, and stern boards of proas as clan emblems. As on Aru, roosters, dogs, and snakes were favored. Moreover, ancestors sometimes appeared as animals inside the houses of origin. The remote island of Tanimbar-Kai offers well-documented examples. Around 1980, images of founding fathers in the shape of animal figures were documented in the attics of two houses. The statues were fitted with the heads of roosters; the bodies resembled those of a human being and a bird.
Evidence collected on the islands of Kai and Tanimbar revealed, however, that not all animal figures connected to a descent group concerned the genealogical founding fathers. A clan or village could also be represented by an animal with which a mythical bond had been made. Through this bond, the animal joined the group, and its image seems to have replaced or symbolized the first male ancestor. These types of bonds are known to have existed primarily on Tanimbar. In various cases, no kinship relation existed with the animals that made up the clan emblems.
The animals chosen to be depicted in these kinds of sculptures were closely linked to the role of the founding fathers in society. Roosters, as well as dogs and snakes, were associated with virtues such as bravery and aggression, both necessary for the ability to kill and thus build a reputation. To the descendants, therefore, the animal figures referred to a founding father as a man of highly impressive standing: an invincible headhunter and an ultimate source of power.
Adapted from
Nico de Jonge, "Life and Death in Southeast Moluccan Art," in Eyes of the Ancestors: The Arts of Island Southeast Asia at the Dallas Museum of Art, Reimar Schefold, ed. in collaboration with Steven Alpert (Dallas: Dallas Museum of Art; New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2013), 275-281.
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Notes
Full text of the original essay adapted to create this CC was pulled from an old note from JBG notebooks that has since been trashed (1/16/2018):
Characteristic statues of founding fathers can generally be found on the eastern islands. On Aru, Kai, and Tanimbar, the history of many patrilineal descent groups goes back to a glorious, mythical past in which the first male ancestors still act in the guise of animals. This is beautifully reflected in material culture.[2]
On the island of Aru, for example, totemlike figures of founding fathers were placed on boats before they set out to sea. Most examples of this imagery depict a seabird, dog, rooster, or snake. The three-dimensional figures, called semai or mitmosim (both terms meaning “sacred”), were attached to the prow and stern.[3] Furthermore, a two-dimensional version in which double images mirrored each other was often placed on a stern board; in special cases, human beings were depicted. Remarkably, these traditions continued to be practiced until quite recently. These animal figures received offerings on a regular basis, as Western missionaries did not regard them as ancestors and were therefore not threatened by their presence.
In villages on Tanimbar, and to a lesser extent on Kai, the founding fathers were portrayed in a comparable way. Here, the animal figures were carved on “houses of origin” of descent groups, village stairs and doorways, and stern boards of proas as clan emblems.[4] As on Aru, roosters, dogs, and snakes were favored. Moreover, ancestors sometimes appeared as animals inside the houses of origin. The remote island of Tanimbar-Kai offers well-documented examples. Around 1980, images of founding fathers in the shape of animal figures were documented in the attics of two houses. The statues were fitted with the heads of roosters; the bodies resembled those of a human being and a bird.[5]
Evidence collected on the islands of Kai and Tanimbar reveals, however, that not all animal figures connected to a descent group concerned the genealogical founding fathers. A clan or village could also be represented by an animal with which a mythical bond had been made. Through this bond, the animal joined the group, and its image seems to have replaced or symbolized the first male ancestor. These types of bonds are known to have existed primarily on Tanimbar. In various cases, no kinship relation existed with the animals that made up the clan emblems (faniak).[6]
The animals chosen to be depicted in these kinds of sculptures were closely linked to the role of the founding fathers in society. Roosters, as well as dogs and snakes, were associated with virtues such as bravery and aggression, both necessary for the ability to kill and thus build a reputation. To the descendants, therefore, the animal figures referred to a founding father as a man of highly impressive standing: an invincible headhunter and an ultimate source of power.
Illustrative of his “heroic deeds” was the decorative design depicting a hunter and his prey: a rooster or a dog with a fish or turtle in his beak or paws. Sometimes this motif was used to decorate a house or village doorway, but more often it was incorporated in a prow board. The latter could also be decorated with other “prey,” such as shells that represented severed heads. The shell decorations (usually Ovula ovum shells strung together) were widely used within the region. For countless generations, these were the preferred means of advertising one’s standing as a headhunter in the Moluccas.[7]
A special version of the design could be found in some of Tanimbar’s founding houses. Here, lavishly embellished plank statues proclaimed the fame and glory of the noble families concerned. The plank statues (mostly known as tavu, meaning “source” or “trunk,” a good illustration of the botanical symbolism) functioned as a sort of family shrine where the ancestral power available within the group could be called upon.
The tavu decorated with the “hunter and his prey” motif were most common on Selaru, the southernmost island of the Tanimbar archipelago. There, the ancient totemic culture was probably best preserved.[8] Generally, the Selaru tavu had the shape of a standing, very stylized human figure with its arms spread wide. At the top there was often a symmetrical carving of two roosters or two dogs, quite similar to the Aru stern boards. This faniak image was accompanied by carvings (often directly below it) that depicted seized treasures in various forms, such as gold valuables and shells probably symbolizing severed heads.[9] However, in contrast to the prow boards, here often beautifully stylized Nautilus species could be observed.[10]
While the statues of founding mothers in Maluku Tenggara—in accordance with symbolism of the “ship of marriage”—explicitly referred to fertility, the male family founders were—in accordance with the same concept—usually depicted as “great hunters.”
2. The mythical founding fathers appear to have assumed the shape of animals on Aru in particular. On other islands, this role could also be played by humans that were associated with animals because of the qualities attributed to them.
3. See Osseweijer 2001: 86.
4. See, for example, Jacobsen 1896: 185, 221; Drabbe 1940: 106, 111; Barraud 1979: 35–36.
5. See Barraud 1979: 71.
6. See, for example, Drabbe 1940: 388–89.
7. See Rumphius (1678) in Buijze 2001: 105.
8. Drabbe remarks that the island of Selaru has a special position within the Tanimbar archipelago. Here, more than elsewhere, a “totemic cultural complex” would have left its mark (1940: preface).
9. Müller-Wismar collected eleven tavu on Selaru in 1913 and identified the carved animal figures, which he called “totems,” or faniak (1914). Engelhard (1994) discusses his data and provides an overview of golden valuables represented on tavu. Of interest here are chest pendants and “male earrings,” heirloom valuables that always remain in the clan and do not circulate in society, constituting the strength and prestige of the descent group involved (see also the gold chest pendant from Tanimbar, cat. 103, p. 298). Because of its ancient culture, Selaru also appears to be the obvious place to provide the exact meaning of the tavu. We hypothesize that in this case—as with the luli statue—we find a female figure that uses its outstretched arms to depict a boat. Similar to early war or celebration proas, this symbolic boat—at least on Selaru—always has a male clan emblem ( faniak) on it, accompanied by the depiction of status-enhancing treasures (symbols of trophy heads). The resulting image appears to leave little room for doubt; this is a visualization of the grandness of the clan by means of showing it as a boat, laden with hunting trophies. It is a familiar image on Tanimbar (the traditional house would in fact embody the same message), which would particularly be expressed during the renewal of intervillage alliances. Their consummation would be celebrated by female dancers, their arms stretched sideways and covered with valuable heirlooms, upholding the reputation of the descent group (see also Geurtjens 1941: 175).
10. The Nautilus shell was widely used as a substitute headhunting trophy within the region; see, for example, Drabbe 1940: 235, and de Jonge and van Dijk 1995a: 96. In the Babar archipelago as well as on Kisar, the traditional houses were even decorated with them; see, for example, Brommer 1979: pl. 94.
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